NDTAC Issue Brief: Reading Literacy

By Tricia Tulipano and Regina Waugh

The Issue

photo: an incarcerated female reading the facility library Many youth involved in the juvenile justice system struggle academically. Although poor school attendance plays a part in the underachievement of this population, a larger issue may be that these students never fully mastered reading. Evidence suggests that their period of incarceration can be an excellent opportunity for students to reengage educationally. Research also suggests that the consequences for youth who continue to lack adequate literacy skills upon release can be severe. In order to best prepare students for success following incarceration, juvenile facilities should make reading instruction a cornerstone of their education programming.

Current Situation

Incarcerated youth are significantly behind their age group peers in reading. According to one national study, the typical juvenile inmate is just over 15 (15.5 years old) and, although at a ninth-grade level by age, reads at the fourth-grade level [1]. A 1998 study of youth in Florida’s juvenile justice facilities revealed that 80 percent of incarcerated youth in that State scored one or more grade levels below their same-age peers in reading [2].

Without basic literacy skills, incarcerated youth face a host of social and economic difficulties upon release. Findings based on data from the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) emphasize the challenges facing people who cannot read: 43 percent of people with the lowest literacy skills live in poverty; 17 percent of people with the lowest literacy skills receive food stamps; and 70 percent of people with the lowest literacy skills have no full- or part-time job [3]. Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania report that “only 12 percent of formerly incarcerated youth had a high school diploma or GED by young adulthood…only about 30 percent were in either school or a job 1 year after their release [and] delinquent youth are seven times more likely to have a history of unemployment and welfare dependence as an adult” (p. 1) [4].

Under the right circumstances, however, incarceration can present new educational opportunities for these students and may make the difference in whether or not they recidivate. Researchers have noted that “while illiteracy and low reading skills are not necessarily direct causes of delinquency—reducing illiteracy through quality education in correctional facilities has been shown to reduce recidivism” (p. 240) [5]. The Criminal Justice Policy Council studied 26,000 inmates who were released from prison in 1997 and 1998 and also found that young, uneducated prisoners were 37 percent less likely to return to prison if they learned to read while incarcerated [6].

What Can You Do?

Research specific to literacy programs for the population of youth involved in the juvenile justice system remains limited, but a body of research does exist that indicates the general strategies and materials that are most important when working with all struggling adolescent readers. Based on the research, NDTAC has identified three key components, which may be particularly important for teaching reading to incarcerated youth. These include (1) implementing appropriate instructional strategies and materials; (2) administering both formative and summative assessments and using their results to guide instruction; and (3) ensuring that all teachers in the facility have the necessary professional development and support to provide effective reading instruction.

Key Components for Teaching Reading

Instructional Programs and
Materials
Assessments
Professional Development

1. Targeted Instructional Programs and Materials

According to the authors of the report Reading Next—A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School Literacy: A Report to Carnegie Corporation of New York, students should receive reading and writing instruction beyond 30–40 minutes a day; the panel recommended at least 2–4 hours a day. Literacy instruction should also be included in the core subject areas [7]. Educational administrators can support literacy instruction by ensuring that the daily schedule allows for sufficient time—at least 2 to 4 hours—for reading instruction and that teachers have the necessary skills and materials to teach reading across the curriculum. Educational administrators can also work with correctional staff to make sure students are brought to reading sessions on time and that instructional schedules are coordinated with other events (e.g. court dates).

In addition, while many struggling readers have trouble comprehending what they read, it is important that literacy instruction for these students go beyond comprehension strategies. As researcher Michael Kamil notes in his report Adolescents and Literacy: Reading for the 21st Century, “despite the typical belief that the problems of adolescent literacy are all about comprehension, there remains a group of middle and high school students who have reading problems that result from not having mastered the alphabetic principle” (p. 9) [8]. That is, for many struggling readers, trouble comprehending is merely a symptom of more basic problems with phonics and phonemic awareness. Many struggling adolescents may benefit from additional instruction in the areas of fluency and vocabulary.

For these reasons, when selecting strategies and materials, both teachers and educational administrators should ensure that the reading program includes instruction in alphabetics (phonics and phonemic awareness), fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension, and that supplemental and intervention materials are available for those students who may need additional instruction in these areas. Teachers can increase students’ motivation to read by including texts covering a wide variety of topics for different ability levels and cultural, linguistic, and demographic groups in the classroom library. Educational administrators can promote reading by working with other facility staff to encourage students to practice reading in their free time and by making reading materials available outside of the classroom.

Teachers and administrators must also be prepared to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities and students who are linguistically and culturally diverse (LCD). Statistically students in a correctional facility are more than three times as likely to have a learning disability than their counterparts in general education [9]. The use of assistive technologies is one innovative approach some educators are using to help improve reading skills. Teachers and administrators can use the National Center for Technology Innovation's Reading Matrix to help identify an appropriate technology, or the U.S. Department of Education’s "Toolkit on Teaching and Assessing Students with Disabilities" for additional techniques. Those students who are LCD may have limited English proficiency and cultural knowledge and a history of interrupted or inadequate education [10]. Vialpano et. al. (2005) note that culturally-responsive pedagogy is one where "the home cultures and experiences of the students are used as resources for teaching and learning" (p. 24) [11]. The authors further note the importance for teachers to learn about the values and belief systems of their students and to include cultural references throughout their teaching.

2. Regular, Structured Assessments

In order to track student progress and adjust instruction to meet individual student needs, teachers should administer regular formative (ongoing, process-oriented) assessments and periodic summative (evaluative) assessments. As Biancarosa and Snow (2004) note, “the best instructional improvements are informed by ongoing assessment of student strengths and needs” (p. 19). Assessment results should be used to target students’ individual needs and place students in reading groups according to their level. Many reading programs include materials for both types of assessment, and many teachers do informal assessments naturally as a part of their teaching. By formalizing the testing process and using assessments linked to the curriculum, teachers can ensure that students are being assessed comprehensively on a regular, routine basis. Also, the test data may provide valuable information on what students are lacking, thus enabling the teacher to address these areas and guiding the teacher’s instruction.

Educational administrators can support the use of assessments to guide instruction by familiarizing themselves with any curriculum-based assessments included in the reading program and by remaining aware of student progress at the individual or classroom level. Studying assessment results can also help educational administrators target resources and support to those students and teachers with the greatest need.

3. Ongoing Professional Development in Reading

According to Kamil (2002), “professional development leads to improved reading ability for students” (p. 28). For any reading program or curriculum to be successful, teachers must have the training to effectively implement the instructional strategies and materials. While many publishers offer training in the use of their reading programs, it is essential that professional development be an ongoing and imbedded aspect of instruction. Some reading programs provide for the position of “reading coach,” a teacher who is trained in the curriculum and who can provide observation, feedback, and support for individual teachers and training to new teachers who join the school staff. Educational administrators should also be trained in any and all reading curricula so that they are equipped to act as an instructional leader within the facility.

Federal Role

photo:us capitol building The Federal Government has sponsored several initiatives related to educational programming for adolescent youth.

Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children and Youth who are Neglected, Delinquent, or at Risk (Title I, Part D)
Title I, Part D provides financial assistance to educational programs for youth in state-operated institutions or community day programs (Title I, Part D, Subpart 1). The program also provides financial assistance to support school districts’ programs involving collaboration with locally operated correctional facilities (Title I, Part D, Subpart 2). Title I, Part D is administered by the office of Student Achievement and School Accountability Programs, under the Federal Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (OESE).

Programs funded by Title I, Part D are required to:

Meet the educational needs of neglected, delinquent, and at-risk children and youths, and assist in the transition of these students from correctional facilities to locally operated programs
Ensure that these students have the same opportunities to achieve as if they were in local schools in the State
Evaluate the program and disaggregate data on participation by gender, race, ethnicity, and age, not less than once every 3 years

The Department of Education (ED) determines State allocations (Subpart 1) through a formula based on annual counts of N or D children and youth who are in enrolled in a “regular program of instruction.” A regular program of instruction is an educational program (not beyond grade 12) that is in an institution or in a community day program for children who are N or D and that consists of classroom instruction in basic school subjects, such as reading, mathematics, and vocationally oriented subjects, and is supported by non-Federal funds. Similarly, ED determines the allocation for local programs (Subpart 2) when it calculates annual Title I, Part A local education agency allocations. For more information on allocations and eligibility, see the Title I, Part D Nonregulatory Guidance.

Title I, Part D also provides for the development of a uniform evaluation model and the provision of technical assistance. To this end, ED established The National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education for Children and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent or At Risk (NDTAC) through a contract with the American Institutes for Research (AIR), a nonprofit research organization. NDTAC provides information, resources, and direct technical assistance to States and agencies funded by Title I, Part D in an effort to improve educational programming for neglected, delinquent and at-risk youth and increase the capacity of Title I, Part D providers to evaluate and manage their services more effectively.

Adolescent Literacy Research Network
To increase the research and collaboration on issues involving adolescent literacy, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the U.S. Department of Education 's Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) and Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) hosted two workshops on adolescent literacy, which brought together key researchers in the field. The network also funds six projects designed to research the following areas in literacy: cognitive and neural processes in reading comprehension, social and cultural influences on adolescent development, supporting teachers to close adolescent literacy gaps, student disabilities and learning to read, and the effectiveness of research-based adolescent reading programs. Learn more about the Adolescent Literacy Research Network program.

Striving Readers Program
ED awarded $30 million dollars for the 2006-2007 school year to support eight Striving Readers programs. One of the eight programs is Ohio's Department of Youth Services, which will implement the grant with youth in the State's juvenile correctional facilities. The purpose of the program is to increase reading achievement of Title I middle and high schools that have a large number of students reading below grade level. The grants can be used for reading interventions to “improve basic reading skills, motivation, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension using research-based programs; professional development aligned with scientifically based reading research; valid and reliable reading assessments; and the design and implementation of a rigorous evaluation” [12]. Get more information on the Striving Readers program.

Additional Resources

Foundations and Organizations

There are also a number of foundations and organizations that provide additional support and resources on adolescent literacy.

For More Information

For more information on NDTAC and to review additional resources for N or D youth, please visit our updated Learning & Behavioral Management Strategies to view additional resources on reading literacy and other instructional practices, including relevant strategies and models, presentations on the topic, and more.

[1] Project READ, 1978, as cited in Brunner, M. S. (1993). Reduced recidivism and increased employment opportunity through research-based reading instruction. (NCJ Publication No. 141324). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

[2] Florida Legislature. (1998). Review of education services in juvenile residential facilities. (Report No. 98–28). Tallahassee, FL: Office of Program Policy Analysis and Government Accountability. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 426335).

[3] Humboldt Literacy Project’s Fast Facts on Literacy from the National Institute for Literacy (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2006, from http://www.eurekawebs.com/humlit/fast_facts.htm

[4] Chung, H. L., Little, M., Steinberg, L., & Altschuler, D. (2005, February). Juvenile justice and the transition to adulthood. Network on Transition to Adulthood Policy Brief, 20.

[5] Malmgren, K. W., & Leone, P. (2000, August). Effects of a short-term auxiliary reading program on the reading skills of incarcerated youth. Education and Treatment of Children, 23(3), 239–247.

[6] Keith, J., & McCray, A. (2002). Juvenile offenders with special needs: Critical issues and bleak outcomes. Qualitative Studies in Education, 15, 691–710.

[7] Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. E. (2004). Reading next—A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

[8] Kamil, M. L. (2002). Adolescents and literacy: Reading for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved March 27, 2005, from http://ierc.siue.edu/documents/AdolescentsAndLiteracy.pdf

[9] National Center on Education, Disability, and Juvenile Justice. (2005, February). EDJJ Notes, 4(1).

[10] DelliCarpini, M. (2003, May). English language instruction for incarcerated youth. ERIC Digest (ED482587).

[11] Vialpando, J., Yedlin, J., Linse, C., Harrington, M., & Cannon, G. (2005). Educating English Language Learners: Implementing Instructional Practices. National Council of La Raza and The Education Alliance at Brown University.

[12] U.S. Department of Education. (2006). $30 Million in Striving Readers grants awarded to help struggling readers: First grants to support president's Striving Readers program (Press Release). Washington, DC: Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. Retrieved May 16, 2006, from http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2006/03/03222006.html

Published June 2006

The National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk (NDTAC)

Issue Brief: Reading Literacy

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